Water Resources of India
India's water resources — surface water basins, groundwater crisis (world's largest user), 89 Ramsar wetlands, major lakes, glaciers, traditional harvesting systems, and Ken–Betwa interlinking project.
Overview
India is a water-rich country on average — receiving ~4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM) of precipitation annually. Yet it faces acute water stress because:
- Rainfall is highly seasonal (75–80% in just 4 months of SW Monsoon).
- Rainfall is spatially uneven (Meghalaya ~11,000 mm vs Jaisalmer ~100 mm).
- Population density is among the world's highest in water-stressed basins.
- Groundwater is being extracted far faster than it recharges.
India's Water Budget (Annual)
| Category | Volume |
|---|---|
| Total precipitation | ~4,000 BCM |
| Utilizable surface water | ~690 BCM |
| Replenishable groundwater | ~433 BCM |
| Total utilizable water | ~1,123 BCM |
| Current annual use (2024) | ~800–850 BCM |
| Irrigation share of use | ~80% |
| Domestic + industrial | ~20% |
India has 4% of the world's freshwater resources but supports 18% of the world's population.
Surface Water Resources
River Basins
India has 12 major river basins (each >20,000 km²) and numerous minor basins. Surface water potential is concentrated in a few large basins:
| River Basin | Basin Area (km²) | Annual Potential (BCM) |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna | 11.0 lakh | ~525 (largest) |
| Godavari | 3.13 lakh | ~110 |
| Krishna | 2.58 lakh | ~78 |
| Indus (India's portion) | 3.21 lakh | ~73 |
| Mahanadi | 1.41 lakh | ~66 |
| Cauvery | 0.81 lakh | ~21 |
| Narmada | 0.98 lakh | ~45 |
Key fact: The Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna system alone carries ~46% of India's total river flow.
Inter-State Water Disputes
Water sharing between states is a major source of conflict. Key disputes:
| Dispute | Rivers | States Involved | Status (2024) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cauvery | Cauvery | Tamil Nadu vs Karnataka | CWDT award (2007); SC modified (2018); disputes continue |
| Krishna | Krishna | Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, Telangana | Brijesh Kumar Tribunal-II ongoing |
| Mahadayi (Mandovi) | Mahadayi | Goa vs Karnataka, Maharashtra | Tribunal award 2023: 13.42 TMC to Karnataka |
| Sutlej–Yamuna Link (SYL) | Ravi-Beas waters | Punjab vs Haryana | SC case; canal incomplete since 1990 |
| Vamsadhara | Vamsadhara | AP vs Odisha | Tribunal constituted |
Major Dams and Reservoirs
India has ~5,745 large dams — the third highest in the world (after China and USA).
| Dam | River | State | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tehri Dam | Bhagirathi (Ganga) | Uttarakhand | India's tallest dam (260.5 m); rock-and-earth fill |
| Bhakra-Nangal | Sutlej | HP/Punjab | India's highest concrete gravity dam (226 m); Gobind Sagar reservoir |
| Hirakud | Mahanadi | Odisha | World's longest earthen dam (25.8 km) |
| Nagarjuna Sagar | Krishna | Telangana/AP | One of the world's largest masonry dams |
| Sardar Sarovar | Narmada | Gujarat | India's largest concrete gravity dam by volume; height 138.68 m |
| Indira Sagar | Narmada | MP | India's largest reservoir by storage capacity (12.22 BCM) |
| Koyna | Koyna | Maharashtra | Largest hydropower project in Maharashtra |
| Farakka Barrage | Ganga | West Bengal | Diverts Ganga water into Hooghly; Bangladesh disputes |
Trap: Bhakra is India's highest concrete gravity dam; Tehri is India's tallest dam (a different category — rockfill/earthfill). Indira Sagar has the largest reservoir but Sardar Sarovar is the largest concrete gravity dam.
Groundwater Resources
Importance and Extent
- India is the world's largest user of groundwater — extracting ~250 BCM/year (~25% of global groundwater extraction).
- Groundwater irrigates ~65% of India's net irrigated area.
- ~80% of rural drinking water comes from groundwater.
- Total replenishable (dynamic) groundwater: ~433 BCM/year.
Groundwater Stress — CGWB 2024
| Category | Definition | Blocks |
|---|---|---|
| Over-exploited | Extraction > 100% of recharge | ~1,114 blocks |
| Critical | 90–100% of recharge | ~314 blocks |
| Semi-critical | 70–90% of recharge | ~1,145 blocks |
| Safe | <70% of recharge | ~3,863 blocks |
Most over-exploited states: Punjab (~76% blocks over-exploited), Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Tamil Nadu (Tamil Nadu's hard rock aquifers recharge slowly).
UPSC Mains 2024 (direct question): "Examine the causes of groundwater depletion in India. What measures have been taken to address this?"
Causes of Groundwater Depletion
- Free/highly subsidised electricity for irrigation pumps — farmers pump without cost signal; Punjab paddy cultivation requires 1,200–1,400 mm water but gets only 400–500 mm rain.
- Green Revolution emphasis on water-intensive crops — paddy in Punjab, sugarcane in Maharashtra — far exceed local water balance.
- Rapid urbanisation — impermeable surfaces reduce recharge; overextraction for cities.
- Weak regulation — no licensing for borewells in most states; anyone can drill.
- Climate change — erratic monsoon → farmers over-pump during dry spells.
Government Initiatives
| Scheme | Key Feature |
|---|---|
| Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020) | ₹6,000 cr scheme; community-led groundwater management in 7 states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP, MP, Karnataka, Haryana) |
| Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Catch the Rain | Rainwater harvesting; check dams; rejuvenation of traditional water bodies |
| PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) | "Har Khet Ko Pani, More Crop Per Drop"; micro-irrigation; convergence of water schemes |
| National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM) | CGWB mapping aquifer systems; basis for regulation |
| Draft National Water Policy 2020 | Shift to basin-level management; pricing reform; groundwater regulation bill |
Lakes of India
Types of Lakes
| Type | Formation | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Glacial lakes | Glacial scouring or moraine damming | Dal, Wular (J&K), Gurudongmar (Sikkim) |
| Tectonic lakes | Faulting and subsidence | Wular (J&K), Loktak (Manipur) |
| Oxbow lakes | River meander cut-offs | Kanwar Jheel (Bihar), Dal (Assam) |
| Lagoons (coastal) | Sand bars blocking sea inlets | Chilika (Odisha), Pulicat (AP/TN), Vembanad (Kerala) |
| Crater lakes | Volcanic craters | Lonar (Maharashtra) |
| Saline lakes (playa) | Inland drainage basins | Sambhar (Rajasthan), Didwana |
| Man-made reservoirs | Dam construction | Gobind Sagar, Indira Sagar |
Major Lakes
| Lake | State | Type | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chilika Lake | Odisha | Coastal lagoon | India's largest coastal lagoon; Asia's largest; ~1,100 km²; Ramsar site 1981; Irrawaddy dolphins |
| Wular Lake | J&K | Tectonic/glacial | Largest freshwater lake in India; ~189 km² (seasonal variation: 24–260 km²); Ramsar site |
| Dal Lake | J&K | Glacial | Famous houseboat tourism; floating gardens (Rad); under environmental threat |
| Loktak Lake | Manipur | Tectonic | Largest freshwater lake in NE India; famous for phumdis (floating biomass islands); Keibul Lamjao NP (only floating NP) floats on it |
| Vembanad Lake | Kerala | Coastal lagoon | Longest lake in India (~96 km); Ramsar site; Kuttanad below sea level farming area |
| Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | Saline/playa | Largest saline lake in India; Ramsar site 1990 |
| Lonar Lake | Maharashtra | Crater lake | Only saline soda crater lake in the world; 52,000 years old; Ramsar site 2020 |
| Kolleru Lake | Andhra Pradesh | Freshwater | Between Krishna and Godavari deltas; Ramsar site |
| Bhoj Wetland | Madhya Pradesh | Man-made | Two lakes in Bhopal; Ramsar site 2002 |
Trap: "Chilika is the largest lake in India" → Chilika is the largest coastal lagoon; Wular is the largest freshwater lake. Different categories.
Wetlands and Ramsar Sites
What is a Ramsar Site?
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (1971, Ramsar, Iran) is an international treaty for conservation of wetlands. India signed it in 1982.
- A Ramsar Site = wetland of international importance designated under the Convention.
- India has 89 Ramsar Sites (as of April 2026) — largest number in Asia and among the top globally.
- Total area: ~13.5 lakh hectares.
India's Ramsar expansion timeline:
- 1981: 1 site (Chilika)
- 2021: India added 14 new sites in one year (largest single-year addition)
- 2022: 28 new sites added — another record
- 2026: 89 total
Important Ramsar Sites (UPSC Frequently Asked)
| Ramsar Site | State | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Chilika Lake | Odisha | First Indian Ramsar site (1981); Asia's largest coastal lagoon |
| Keoladeo Ghana NP | Rajasthan | Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary; migratory waterfowl; UNESCO WHS |
| Wular Lake | J&K | Largest freshwater lake in India |
| Loktak Lake | Manipur | Phumdis (floating islands); Keibul Lamjao floating NP |
| Sambhar Lake | Rajasthan | Largest saline lake; flamingos |
| Vembanad-Kol | Kerala | Kuttanad — farming below sea level; Nehru Trophy boat race |
| Kolleru Lake | Andhra Pradesh | Between Godavari–Krishna deltas |
| Harike Wetland | Punjab | Confluence of Beas and Sutlej; Indira Gandhi Canal headwork |
| Deepor Beel | Assam | Large floodplain lake west of Guwahati; Ramsar site |
| Renuka Wetland | Himachal Pradesh | Smallest Ramsar site in India |
| Lonar Lake | Maharashtra | Saline soda crater lake; Ramsar 2020 |
| Sultanpur NP | Haryana | Bird sanctuary near Delhi |
| Thol Lake | Gujarat | Flamingo habitat |
| Wadhvana Wetland | Gujarat | Migratory birds from Central Asia |
States with most Ramsar sites (2026): Tamil Nadu (16) > Uttar Pradesh (10) > Gujarat (6).
Montreux Record
The Montreux Record is a list of Ramsar sites where ecology has deteriorated due to human activity or natural change:
- India's current Montreux Record sites: Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan), Loktak Lake (Manipur).
- Chilika Lake was removed from Montreux Record in 2002 after successful ecological restoration.
Glaciers and Freshwater Stored as Ice
Himalayan Water Tower
The Himalayas contain the largest concentration of glaciers outside the polar regions — often called the "Third Pole" or "Water Tower of Asia".
| Feature | Value |
|---|---|
| Number of Himalayan glaciers | ~9,575 (Geological Survey of India) |
| Total glaciated area (India) | ~37,000 km² |
| Freshwater stored | ~3,735 BCM (estimate) |
| Key rivers fed by glaciers | Indus, Ganga (Bhagirathi, Alaknanda), Brahmaputra |
Glacier retreat (IPCC AR6 + GSI data):
- ~70% of Himalayan glaciers are retreating.
- Gangotri glacier: retreating at ~22 m/year average (2000–2023).
- Zemu glacier (Sikkim): retreat accelerating; contributed to 2023 GLOF.
- Siachen glacier: some advance due to increased snowfall from WDs — but overall mass balance negative.
- Impact on rivers: Short-term increase in river flow (glacial melt); long-term risk of reduced dry-season flows as glaciers shrink (called "peak water" followed by decline).
Trans-Himalayan River Sources
| River | Glacial Source |
|---|---|
| Ganga | Gangotri glacier (Bhagirathi); Satopanth, Bhagirath Kharak (Alaknanda) |
| Yamuna | Yamunotri glacier |
| Indus | Sengge Khabab spring (Tibet); Siachen glacier area |
| Chenab | Bara Lacha La area glaciers |
| Brahmaputra (Tsangpo) | Angsi glacier (Tibet) |
Water Conservation Methods — Traditional and Modern
Traditional Methods (UPSC Frequently Asked)
| Method | Region | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Johad | Rajasthan | Earthen check dam impounding rainwater; community-managed |
| Kund / Tanka | Rajasthan | Underground cylindrical cistern for household rainwater |
| Khadin | Jaisalmer | Agricultural embankment to trap runoff for crops |
| Bawdi / Baoli | Rajasthan, Gujarat | Ornate stepwell; community water access |
| Karez / Kariz | Ladakh | Underground horizontal tunnel (qanat) tapping subsurface water |
| Zabo / Ruza | Nagaland | Hilltop rainwater harvesting integrated with forest conservation |
| Phad | Maharashtra (Nashik, Jalgaon) | Community irrigation system using river diversions |
| Ahar-Pyne | Bihar | Ahar = catchment reservoir; Pyne = channels feeding ahars |
| Jackwells | Goa | Natural springs tapped via stone-lined wells |
| Vav | Gujarat | Ornate stepwells (Rani ki Vav, Patan — UNESCO WHS) |
| Surangam | Kerala | Horizontal tunnel for groundwater extraction without a well |
| Eri | Tamil Nadu | Community irrigation tank system |
| Ooranis | Tamil Nadu | Small drinking-water ponds |
| Bamboo Drip Irrigation | Meghalaya | Traditional drip irrigation using bamboo pipes (Khasi and Jaintia communities) |
Meghalaya bamboo drip irrigation is listed by FAO as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS).
Modern Approaches
- Micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler): Covered under PMKSY; India has ~7.3 million ha under micro-irrigation (2024).
- Aquifer recharge: Artificial recharge wells; check dams; percolation tanks.
- Treated wastewater reuse: ~60% of India's wastewater is untreated; recycling is nascent.
- Desalination: Small plants in Chennai, Lakshadweep; expensive for large-scale inland use.
Interlinking of Rivers (ILR)
National River Linking Project (NRLP)
Concept: Transfer water from surplus basins (peninsular rivers and Brahmaputra/Ganga with excess flow) to deficit basins (peninsular interior, Rajasthan, Gujarat).
| Component | Links | Estimated Cost |
|---|---|---|
| Himalayan Component | 14 links; Ganga–Brahmaputra–Meghna system | Part of ₹5.5 lakh cr total |
| Peninsular Component | 16 links; surplus south peninsular rivers to deficit areas | — |
| Total | 30 river links | ₹5.5–8.4 lakh cr (various estimates) |
Ken–Betwa Link (first to be implemented):
- Links Ken River (MP, surplus) to Betwa River (UP, deficit).
- Approved: 2021; construction underway.
- Daudhan Dam to be constructed; will submerge part of Panna Tiger Reserve — major controversy.
- Estimated benefit: Irrigation to 8.11 lakh ha in Bundelkhand region.
- Estimated cost: ~₹44,605 cr.
Arguments For ILR:
- Solves water deficit in dry regions (Bundelkhand, Marathwada, Rajasthan).
- Reduces flood damage in surplus basins.
- Increases irrigated area and food security.
Arguments Against ILR:
- Submergence of forests, farmland, wildlife habitat (Panna TR).
- Disrupts river ecology, fish migration, downstream flow regimes.
- Bangladesh and Nepal concerns about Himalayan component (diverting Ganga tributaries).
- Climate change will alter surplus/deficit classifications — the premise may be wrong.
- High cost, long gestation period.
- Supreme Court (2012) directed fast-tracking; implementation still slow.
Water Scarcity and Stress
India's Water Stress Ranking
- NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) 2019: India is one of the world's worst water-stressed nations.
- 21 Indian cities (including Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad) face "Day Zero" risk (near-total groundwater depletion) by 2030 — NITI Aayog report.
- India's per capita water availability has fallen from ~5,177 m³/year (1951) to ~~1,450 m³/year (2021) — approaching "water stressed" threshold of 1,700 m³/year/person.
Day Zero Events in India
| City | Year | Crisis Type |
|---|---|---|
| Chennai | 2019 | Reservoirs hit zero; city nearly shut; tanker water for weeks |
| Shimla | 2018 | Severe shortage; tourist influx + dry winter |
| Bengaluru | 2024 | Worst water crisis in decades; 6,000+ tanker trips/day; groundwater depletion |
Jal Jeevan Mission
- Goal: Tap water connection (Functional Household Tap Connection — FHTC) to every rural household by 2024.
- Progress (April 2026): ~78.9% of rural households have FHTC (15.31 cr of 19.39 cr households).
- Previous baseline: Only 3.23 cr households (16.6%) had piped water in 2019.
UPSC Corner
High-Frequency Prelims Topics
- India's Ramsar sites: 89 (as of 2026); largest in Asia. First site = Chilika (1981).
- Largest coastal lagoon: Chilika (Odisha) | Largest freshwater lake: Wular (J&K).
- Largest saline lake: Sambhar (Rajasthan) | Largest lake in NE India: Loktak (Manipur).
- Montreux Record India: Keoladeo Ghana + Loktak (Chilika removed in 2002).
- Lonar Lake: Only saline soda crater lake in the world; Maharashtra.
- Phumdis: Floating biomass islands on Loktak Lake; Keibul Lamjao NP floats on them.
- India = world's largest groundwater user: ~25% of global extraction.
- Tehri Dam = tallest dam in India (260.5 m); Bhakra = highest concrete gravity dam.
- Hirakud = world's longest earthen dam (25.8 km); Mahanadi, Odisha.
- Bamboo drip irrigation (Meghalaya) = GIAHS (FAO recognized).
- Harike Barrage = confluence of Beas + Sutlej; source of Indira Gandhi Canal.
- Ken–Betwa link: First ILR project; Daudhan Dam; Panna Tiger Reserve controversy.
UPSC Mains GS1 Angles
- "India has abundant water resources yet faces acute water scarcity. Explain the paradox."
- "Examine the significance of Ramsar wetlands in India. Why have many been placed on the Montreux Record?"
- "Discuss the regional distribution of water resources in India and its implications for inter-state water disputes."
- "Traditional water harvesting systems of India are more appropriate than large dams. Critically examine."
- "Himalayan glaciers are the water towers of Asia. How is their rapid retreat threatening freshwater security?"
GS3 Angles
- "Critically examine the National River Linking Project — is it a solution to India's water crisis or an ecological disaster?"
- "Groundwater depletion is India's most serious long-term water challenge. Discuss causes and suggest policy responses." [UPSC Mains 2024]
- "Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide tap water to every rural household by 2024. Evaluate its progress and challenges."
MCQ Trap Awareness
- Trap: "Wular is a glacial lake" → Wular is tectonic in origin (though glacial processes contributed); officially classified tectonic.
- Trap: "Chilika is the largest lake" → Chilika is the largest coastal lagoon; Wular = largest freshwater lake; separate categories.
- Trap: "Loktak is in Assam" → Manipur (Deepor Beel is in Assam).
- Trap: "Tehri Dam is on the Ganga" → Tehri is on the Bhagirathi (a source tributary); not the main Ganga stream.
- Trap: "Ken–Betwa link will help Rajasthan" → Ken–Betwa helps Bundelkhand (MP and UP), not Rajasthan.
- Trap: "Sardar Sarovar is India's tallest dam" → Tehri is India's tallest (260.5 m); Sardar Sarovar is the largest concrete gravity dam by volume.
Key Facts at a Glance
- Total utilizable water: ~1,123 BCM/year
- India = world's largest groundwater user (~250 BCM/year)
- Ramsar Sites (2026): 89 — largest in Asia; first = Chilika (1981)
- Largest coastal lagoon: Chilika, Odisha (~1,100 km²)
- Largest freshwater lake: Wular, J&K (~24–260 km² seasonal)
- Largest saline lake: Sambhar, Rajasthan (Ramsar 1990)
- India's tallest dam: Tehri (260.5 m) — Bhagirathi, Uttarakhand
- Longest earthen dam: Hirakud (25.8 km) — Mahanadi, Odisha
- Largest reservoir by storage: Indira Sagar (12.22 BCM) — Narmada, MP
- Montreux Record sites: Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan) + Loktak (Manipur)
- Ken–Betwa Link: First ILR project; Bundelkhand; Daudhan Dam; Panna TR controversy
- Per capita water availability (2021): ~1,450 m³/year (near "water stressed" threshold)
- Jal Jeevan Mission coverage (April 2026): ~78.9% rural households
Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej River (226 m) is India's highest concrete gravity dam; its reservoir is called Gobind Sagar. Sardar Sarovar on the Narmada (138.68 m) is the largest concrete gravity dam by volume.
India receives ~4,000 BCM of precipitation annually but has only ~1,123 BCM of utilizable water (690 BCM surface + 433 BCM groundwater). Irrigation accounts for ~80% of all water use.
India holds 4% of the world's freshwater resources but supports 18% of the world's population, making per-capita water availability critically low at ~1,450 m³/year (2021) — near the 'water stressed' threshold of 1,700 m³/year.
India is the world's largest user of groundwater, extracting ~250 BCM/year — about 25% of global groundwater extraction. Groundwater irrigates ~65% of India's net irrigated area and supplies ~80% of rural drinking water.
The CGWB 2024 assessment classifies ~1,114 blocks as 'over-exploited' (extraction >100% of recharge). Punjab has ~76% of its blocks over-exploited, making it the most groundwater-stressed major state in India.
India has ~5,745 large dams — the third highest in the world after China and USA. Tehri Dam (260.5 m, Bhagirathi River, Uttarakhand) is India's tallest dam; it is a rock-and-earth fill type, not a concrete gravity dam.
Hirakud Dam on the Mahanadi River (Odisha) is the world's longest earthen dam at 25.8 km. Indira Sagar Dam on the Narmada (MP) has India's largest reservoir by storage capacity at 12.22 BCM.
India has 89 Ramsar Sites (as of April 2026) — the largest number in Asia. Chilika Lake (Odisha) was India's first Ramsar site, designated in 1981. Tamil Nadu (16 sites) has the most Ramsar sites among Indian states.
Chilika Lake (Odisha, ~1,100 km²) is India's largest coastal lagoon and Asia's largest brackish water lagoon. Wular Lake (J&K) is India's largest freshwater lake, with a seasonal range of 24–260 km². Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan) is India's largest saline lake.
Loktak Lake (Manipur) is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India, famous for 'phumdis' (floating biomass islands). Keibul Lamjao National Park, the world's only floating national park, floats on phumdis in Loktak Lake.
Lonar Lake (Maharashtra) is the only saline soda crater lake in the world, approximately 52,000 years old. It was designated a Ramsar site in 2020.
The Montreux Record lists Ramsar sites where ecology has deteriorated. India currently has two sites on the Montreux Record: Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur). Chilika Lake was successfully removed from the Record in 2002 after ecological restoration.
The Himalayas contain the largest concentration of glaciers outside the polar regions — called the 'Third Pole' or 'Water Tower of Asia'. India has ~9,575 Himalayan glaciers covering ~37,000 km², storing ~3,735 BCM of freshwater. About 70% are retreating.
The Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020) is a ₹6,000 crore scheme for community-led groundwater management in 7 states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP, MP, Karnataka, and Haryana.
Bamboo drip irrigation practised by the Khasi and Jaintia communities of Meghalaya is recognized by the FAO as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS). It is a traditional method channelling spring water to terraced fields via bamboo pipes.
The Ken–Betwa River Link, India's first river interlinking project under the National River Linking Project, received Cabinet approval in December 2021. The Daudhan Dam on Ken River (MP) will submerge ~9,000 ha of Panna Tiger Reserve, at an estimated cost of ₹44,605 crore.
NITI Aayog's Composite Water Management Index (2019) warned that 21 Indian cities including Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, and Hyderabad face 'Day Zero' (near-total groundwater depletion) risk by 2030. Bengaluru faced its worst water crisis in decades in 2024.
Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTC) to every rural household. As of April 2026, ~78.9% of rural households (15.31 crore of 19.39 crore) have FHTC, up from just 16.6% in 2019.
Related Chapters
Drainage Systems of India
India's river systems — Himalayan (perennial, antecedent) vs Peninsular (rain-fed, consequent) rivers, major basins, and inter-basin water transfer.
Inter-State River Water Disputes & River Interlinking
Agriculture and Agro-Climatic Zones of India
India's agriculture — ICAR's 15 agro-climatic zones, kharif/rabi/zaid seasons, major crops (rice, wheat, millets, jute, tea, coffee, spices), irrigation types, Green Revolution legacy, and key schemes (PMKSY, PM-KISAN, e-NAM).
Glaciers and the Cryosphere of India
Himalayan glaciers and the Third Pole — glacier inventory, Siachen/Gangotri/Zemu, retreat causes, Karakoram Anomaly, GLOF risk (Sikkim 2023), permafrost, NMSHE, and ICIMOD.