Biodiversity and Protected Areas of India

Overview

India is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries — a concept coined by Conservation International for countries that together harbour more than 70% of Earth's biodiversity. Though India covers only 2.4% of the world's land area, it accounts for:

• ~7–8% of all recorded species globally
• ~45,000 plant species (11–12% of world's flora) — 4th largest in Asia
• ~91,000 animal species (6.5% of world's fauna)
• ~33,000 endemic plant species — concentrated in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas
• 4th largest in crop biodiversity globally (centre of origin for rice, sugarcane, many pulses)

This rich biodiversity is threatened by habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, and climate change. India's response is channelled through a network of protected areas, species-specific projects, and international commitments.

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Levels of Biodiversity

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Biodiversity Hotspots in India

A biodiversity hotspot (concept by Norman Myers, 1988; adopted by Conservation International) must meet two criteria:

1. Contains at least 1,500 endemic vascular plant species (>0.5% of world's total)
2. Has lost at least 70% of its original habitat

India falls in 4 of the world's 36 biodiversity hotspots:

1. Western Ghats

• Extends ~1,600 km along India's west coast (Gujarat → Tamil Nadu/Kerala)
• UNESCO World Heritage Site (2012) — 39 properties in 4 states
• Endemism: >60% plant species endemic; ~325 globally threatened species
• Flagship species: Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgigiris), Lion-tailed Macaque (shola forests), Purple Frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis — living fossil), Malabar Hornbill
• Key protected areas: Silent Valley NP, Periyar TR, Kalakkad Mundanthurai TR, Kudremukh NP, Agasthyamalai BR
• Gadgil Committee (2011): Recommended classifying WG into Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) I, II, III — controversial; modified by Kasturirangan Committee (2013)
• Kasturirangan Report: 37% of WG = Ecologically Sensitive Area; no mining/quarrying/thermal plants in ESA

2. Eastern Himalayas (including parts of NE India)

• Includes Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, and parts of North Bengal
• ~163 globally threatened species; extreme altitudinal variation (200 m–8,586 m in same zone)
• Endemism: Rich in orchids (>1,000 species in NE India), rhododendrons, ferns
• Flagship species: Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Takin (state animal of Arunachal), One-horned Rhinoceros (Assam lowlands adjacent)
• Key protected areas: Namdapha NP (Arunachal — largest in NE), Kaziranga NP, Dibru-Saikhowa NP, Manas TR

3. Indo-Burma (Eastern Himalayas overlap; extends to Myanmar/SE Asia)

• Covers NE India (Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, parts of Meghalaya)
• One of Earth's most biologically rich but least-studied regions
• Flagship species: Hoolock Gibbon (India's only ape), Amur Falcon (migratory), Green Peafowl

4. Sundaland (only Nicobar Islands from India)

• Primarily Southeast Asian hotspot (Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo)
• India's contribution: Nicobar Islands (Great Nicobar, Car Nicobar)
• Flagship species: Nicobar Megapode, Dugong, Leatherback Sea Turtle, Nicobar long-tailed macaque

MCQ Trap: The Andaman Islands are NOT part of the Sundaland hotspot — only the Nicobar Islands qualify.

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Protected Area Network

India's Protected Area (PA) Network under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WPA 1972) comprises four categories:

Target: Aichi Target 11 (CBD) = 17% terrestrial + 10% marine protection by 2020. India has 5.33% terrestrial PAs (below target) but 5% of marine area protected.

Important National Parks

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Project Tiger

History

• Launched: April 1, 1973 (under PM Indira Gandhi) — at Jim Corbett National Park
• India's most successful wildlife conservation programme
• Created National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) under Ministry of Environment
• Tiger Reserves = Core (critical tiger habitat) + Buffer zone

Tiger Population — All India Tiger Estimation

• India reached its TX2 goal (doubling tigers by 2022 from 2010 baseline) in 2018 itself
• India houses ~75% of world's wild tigers
• Most in: Madhya Pradesh (785) > Karnataka (563) > Uttarakhand (560) > Maharashtra (444) — 2022 census

Tiger Reserves (as of April 2026)

• 54 Tiger Reserves across 18 states
• Largest: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam TR (Andhra/Telangana, 3,728 km²)
• Smallest: Bor TR (Maharashtra, 138 km²)
• Newest: Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla TR (Chhattisgarh); Veerangana Durgawati TR (MP) — both 2023
• Critical Tiger Habitats (CTH) = legally protected core zones; no human activity

Trap: "Jim Corbett is in Uttarakhand" — ✓ Correct. But it was in United Provinces when established (1936); became Jim Corbett NP in 1957 (after India's first PM's request, renamed from Ramganga NP).

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Project Elephant

• Launched: 1992 (MoEFCC)
• Coverage: 33 Elephant Reserves across 14 states; area ~75,796 km²
• India's elephant population: ~29,964 (2017 census, latest comprehensive) — ~60% of Asia's wild elephants
• Population concentrated: South India (Karnataka/Kerala/TN), NE India (Assam, Meghalaya), East India (Jharkhand, Odisha)
• Gajah (Elephant) = National Heritage Animal of India (declared 2010)
• Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC): ~500–600 human deaths/year; railway corridors, agricultural encroachment
• Elephant Corridors: 101 corridors mapped by WTI/MoEFCC; only ~28% with legal protection

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Biosphere Reserves

A Biosphere Reserve (BR) is a UNESCO-designated site under the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme for conservation of biodiversity + sustainable development + monitoring.

Three zones:

• Core Zone: Strictly protected; no human activity
• Buffer Zone: Limited research and eco-tourism
• Transition Zone: Human settlements; sustainable use

India's Biosphere Reserves

• Total: 18 BRs designated by India
• Of these, 12 are recognised by UNESCO-MAB Programme (international recognition)

Remaining 6 (not UNESCO MAB): Manas, Dibru-Saikhowa, Dehang-Debang, Seshachalam, Phibsoo (Bhutan border), Rann of Kutch.

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Wildlife Corridors

Wildlife corridors are linear strips of habitat connecting two or more fragmented wildlife areas, enabling animal movement, gene flow, and range expansion.

Critical Corridors

UPSC 2023 context: Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong elephant corridor was in news for highway NH-715 mitigation measures — underpasses and culverts required.

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Species-Specific Conservation Programmes

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Key Endangered Species

Critically Endangered (CR) in India

Vulnerable/Endangered with high UPSC relevance

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Invasive Alien Species

Invasive species are one of the top five drivers of biodiversity loss globally (IPBES 2023 report).

Kudzu (Pueraria montana) in NE India, Salvinia molesta (aquatic fern), and Japanese Knotweed are emerging threats.

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Legal Framework

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (WPA 1972)

• Foundation of India's wildlife conservation law
• Created PA network; schedules for species protection
• Schedule I: Highest protection; no hunting under any circumstance (Tiger, Lion, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Dugong, Sea turtles, GIB)
• Schedule II: Cannot be hunted; may be taken under special permission
• Schedules III & IV: Minor penalties for hunting
• Schedule V: Vermin (can be killed — crow, fruit bat, common rat)
• Schedule VI: Plants protected from cultivation/trade (pitcher plant, orchids, cycas, red vanda)
• Amendment 2022: Transposition of schedules; created four schedules (from six); stricter penalties; CITES treaty integration

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• Implements the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in India
• Created National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) at Chennai; State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs); Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at local level
• Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS): Nagoya Protocol (2010); People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) at village level
• Amendment 2023: Exempted AYUSH preparations and research; decriminalised minor violations; fast-tracked approvals

Environment Protection Act, 1986

• Empowers Central Government to declare Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ/ESA) around PAs
• Eco-Sensitive Zones: No new industries; regulated mining/quarrying; limits on construction

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International Frameworks

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• Signed at Rio Earth Summit, 1992; entered into force 1993
• Three objectives: Conservation | Sustainable use | Fair and equitable benefit sharing
• Nagoya Protocol (2010): ABS mechanism; binds India
• Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), 2022 (COP15, Kunming-Montreal):
  • 30×30 target: Protect 30% of lands and oceans by 2030
  • Eliminate harmful subsidies ($500 bn/year to biodiversity-negative activities)
  • Mobilise $200 bn/year for biodiversity by 2030
  • India's updated NBSAP 2.0 (2023–2030) aligns with GBF

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 1973)

• Regulates wildlife trade through Appendix I, II, III
• Appendix I: Commercial trade banned (Tiger, Elephant, Snow Leopard, Dugong)
• Appendix II: Controlled trade with permits (Indian Star Tortoise, Rosewood)
• Appendix III: Regulated by individual countries
• WPA 2022 amendment integrates CITES into India's domestic law

Ramsar Convention (Wetlands)

• India: 89 Ramsar sites (largest count in Asia) — as of April 2026 (see Ch. 16 for detail)

IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services)

• The "IPCC for biodiversity"; established 2012
• IPBES Global Assessment 2019: 1 million species threatened with extinction
• IPBES Invasive Species Report 2023: 37,000 alien species introduced globally by human action; $423 bn annual cost

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NBSAP 2.0 — India's Biodiversity Plan (2023–2030)

India submitted its updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP 2.0) at COP15 (2022), aligned with the Kunming-Montreal GBF:

• Expand PA coverage to 30% of land and marine area by 2030 (currently ~5.33% land)
• Restore 2.6 million ha of degraded ecosystems by 2030
• Eliminate invasive species from critical island ecosystems
• Strengthen ABS mechanisms through PBRs
• Integrate biodiversity into climate change adaptation

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UPSC Corner

Key One-Liners for Prelims

• India's share of world's plant species: ~11–12% in 2.4% of world's land area
• Number of megadiverse countries: 17 (India is one)
• Biodiversity hotspots in India: 4 (Western Ghats, Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma, Sundaland-Nicobar only)
• First UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in India: Nilgiri (2000)
• India's first National Park: Jim Corbett (1936, Uttarakhand)
• India's largest National Park: Hemis (Ladakh, 4,400 km²)
• India's smallest National Park: South Button Island NP (Andaman, 0.03 km²)
• One-horned Rhino population: ~4,014 (2022); 95% in Kaziranga
• Asiatic Lion: only in Gir National Park, Gujarat; population ~674 (2020 census)
• Tiger population (2022): 3,167; state with most tigers: Madhya Pradesh (785)
• Project Tiger launch: April 1, 1973 — Jim Corbett NP
• National Aquatic Animal: Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)
• National Heritage Animal: Asian Elephant
• Most widespread invasive plant in India: Lantana camara
• WPA 1972 schedule with highest protection: Schedule I
• Trap: "Kaziranga is a UNESCO WHS" — ✓ True. "It is in Meghalaya" — ✗ Wrong, it's in Assam
• Trap: "India has 36 biodiversity hotspots" — ✗ Wrong; the world has 36 hotspots; India falls in 4
• Trap: "Great Indian Bustard is the national bird of India" — ✗ Wrong; Indian Peacock is national bird; GIB was a strong contender in 1960s but was not selected (partly due to risk of mispronunciation/confusion)
• Trap: "Simlipal is famous for white tigers" — ✗ Wrong; Simlipal has melanistic (black) tigers — naturally occurring colour morph

Mains GS3 Questions

1. "India has one of the highest rates of biodiversity loss despite having a strong legal framework. Discuss." (GS3 2022)
2. "Critically analyse the Kasturirangan Committee report on Western Ghats. What are the implications for biodiversity and development?" (GS3 2021)
3. "Evaluate the success of Project Tiger. What challenges remain for tiger conservation in India?" (GS3 2023)
4. "Invasive alien species pose a greater threat to biodiversity than climate change in some ecosystems. Examine." (GS3)
5. "What is the significance of wildlife corridors? Examine the challenges in maintaining the Nilgiri Biosphere Corridor." (GS1/GS3)
6. "30×30 target under Kunming-Montreal GBF: India's commitments and challenges in achieving them." (GS3 2024)

MCQ Trap Awareness

1. Biosphere Reserve declared by UNESCO MAB ≠ all 18 Indian BRs; only 12 of India's 18 are UNESCO-recognised
2. "Project Tiger was launched in 1973 under which PM" — Indira Gandhi (not Rajiv Gandhi who started Project Elephant 1992)
3. Hornbill Festival is in Nagaland (not Manipur or Assam); relates to conservation awareness of Great Hornbill
4. Purple Frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) found only in Western Ghats — discovered 2003 — considered a "living fossil"
5. Gangetic River Dolphin = Platanista gangetica — freshwater; National Aquatic Animal; blind; echolocation
6. "Dachigam National Park is located near Srinagar" — ✓ Correct; and it's the only wild habitat of the Kashmir Stag (Hangul)